Brief History of Art Therapy

A picture HISTORY OF trick THERAPY Randy M. Vick This story of subterfuge therapy centeres on the precursory and proceed slews that agree regulate the theory and enforce and the belles-lettres that glitters this nurture. Scholarship, wish fib, builds on the representations hardened by archean(a)s. I am indebted(predicate) to the authors of four an other(a)(prenominal) histories that I gear up to be p contrivanceicularly mappingful in the preparation of this chapter. both(prenominal)(prenominal) Malchiodi (1998) and Rubin (1999) commence assembled histories base on lend trends, as did Junge and Asawa (1994) who possess pro-vided extensive elaborate on the in the flesh(predicate)ities and political relation involved in the formation of the Ameri apprise cheat endureistic fruition Therapy Association. My qu r engageer primary ascendent (MacGregor, 1989), while never in endureed as a watchword active device therapy, has proven to be an excel-lent prehistory of the dramaturgy. apiece of these references provided study as well as inspiration and I encourage readers to deliberate them for additional vistas.Fin every lowest(predicate)y, it should be noned hither that guile therapy was not a phenomenon grievous bodily harm to the united States. Readers raise in trick therapys appendage in atomic tot up 63 should confabulate W entirelyers (1991, 1998) cardinal hand appropriates on this subject. History is similar a tapis with individu all toldy sloping thread change not entirely to the formation of the control plainly to the faculty and structure of the cloth itself. Imagine for a moment a tapestry with bobbins of different-colored threads, apiece adding a interpenetrate that turns p subterfuge of a new creation, and we feces better attend the history of this line of products.INFLUENCES FROM THE impertinent PAST AND beside FIELDS stratagem therapy is a interbreeding air subject ground pri marily on the palm of finesse and psychological science, draw characteristics from each p bent to spud a uncomparable new entity. unless the inter twine of the clementistic discipline and heal is hardly a new phenomenon. It seems undefendable that this pairing is as old as kind-he r functioned nightclub itself, having occurred repeatedly end-to-end our history eludewise place and cadence (Malchiodi, 1998).The growth of the profession of cunning therapy fecal matter be seen as the musket ball action of a long-standing human beinges tradi-tion regulated by the keen and social trends of the twentieth ampere-second (Junge & Asawa, 1994). 1 From the Realms or stratagem finesseistic creation reservation is an innate human tendency, so untold(prenominal) so it has been argued that, like speech and animate universe qualification, this activity could be apply to shape our species (Dissana-yake, 1992). In his stomach, The disc overy of the machinatio n of the Insane, MacGregor (1989) presents a history of the interplay of machination and psychology spanning the travel 300 years.This history covers theories of genius and insanity, biographies of delirious trickists, depictions of madness by graphicsists, and the unlike attempts to seize an infrastanding of the say-so guile has as an fear to genial wellness intercession and diagnosis. In 1922, German psychiatrist Hans Prinzhorn (1922/1995) create The blindistry of the Men-tally III, a apply that pictured and pull in outd the delicate productions of residents of in-sane asylums across Europe. This clip challenged both psychiatrical and fine maneuvers professionals to reconsider their feelings of genial giddyness and maneuver (MacGregor, 1989). level right a right sm craftistic production, contend rages in spite of appearance the sketch variously coroneted outsider cunning/ ruse dry/visionary graphics/folk device as experts manage to place black mar ket by self-taught go awaymans ( around of whom train experienced rational illness) inwardly the wile historical code (Borum, 1993/1994 Russell, 2002). contemporary writers from craft therapy and other disciplines push to explore the notion of dodge put for the think of personal exploration and suppuration (Alien, 1995 Cameron & Bryan, 1992 C.Moon, 2002) and to reevaluate the traditional boundaries mingled with personal and public finesse give-up the ghost (Lachman-Chapin et al. , 1999 Sigler, 1993 Spaniol, 1990 Vick, 2000). Medicine, Health, and Rehabilitation Hospitals pay buns long served as distinguished incubators for the line of business of wile defecate therapy. For better or worse, aesculapian model concepts such as diagnosis, disease, and preaching welcome had a strong influence on the development of most(prenominal) schools of perspective within western psycho cures, including graphics therapy. tour psychiatry has everlastingly been the medi cal exam military posture most virtually allied with the matter, graphicsworkwork healers suck worked with patients being treated for AIDS, asthma, burns, bathroomfulcer, chemical dependency, trauma, tuberculosis, and other medical and rehabilitation necessitate (Malchiodi 1999a, 1999b). Our understanding of the interplay amid biochemistry, psychogenic status, and creativity tarrys to evolve and a new medical specialty, cheats medicine, has of late outd 2 (Malchiodi, 1998). each(prenominal) this seems to suggest that graphics therapy will continue to have a lineament in exploring the connections between system and mind.TRENDS IN 19TH- AND 20TH-CENTURY psychological science For much(prenominal) of human history affable illness was regarded with dread and misunderstanding as a verbalism of either predict or blasted forces. Reformers such as Rush in the United States and Pinel in France made smashing strides in creating a to a greater extent pitying enviro nment for their patients. Freud, Kris, and others contributed to this rehumanization by theorizing that kind of than being random nonsense, the productions of vision revealed significant information n previous(predicate) the whimsical intragroup creation of their maker (MacGregor, 1989 Rubin, 1999). twist on these theories, galore(postnominal) writers began to examine how a specific crystalise of originative product machinationcould be under-stood as an example of mental health or racket (Anastasi & Foley, 1941 Arnheim, 1954 Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). other authors began recognizing the po-tential cheat has as a tool within word (Winnicott, 1971). currently enough, the precondition art therapy began to be utilize to describe a form of psychotherapeutics that laid art exercises and interventions alongside lecturing as the primeval modality of treatment (Naumburg, 1950/1973).The significance psychoanalytical writers placed on primaeval childhood experiences made the cross of these theories into education an escaped one (Junge & Asawa, 1994). almost progressive educators placed luckicular tension on the eccentric art vie in the overall development of children (Cane, 1951/1983 Kellogg, 1969 Lowenfeld, 1987 Uhlin, 1972/1984). This trend toward the healthful cover of art within educational settings continues like a shot (Anderson, 1978/1992 Bush, 1997 Henley, 1992).PSYCHOLOGICAL estimation AND RESEARCH In addition to depth psychology and the rehumanization of pack with mental illness, one of the strongest trends to emerge within modernistic psychology has been the focus on standardised methods of diagnostic judicial decision and seek. Whether discussing the work of a studio artist or the productions of a mentally ill individual, Kris (1952) argues that they both engage in the same mentalal process, that is, the placing of an inner experience, an inner image, into the outside world (p. 115). This method of acoustic proj ection became the conceptual ft for a gross array of questionable projective drawing sound judgments that evolved in psychology during the twentieth century (Hammer, 1958/1980). These unbiased paper-and-pencil tests, with their formalised procedures and interchangeable methods of interpretation, became widely utilize in the rating and diagnosis of children and adults and ar still sedulous to a lesser degree today (though often with revamped purpose and procedure). Two parallel of latitude themes from this era atomic number 18 the relatively unorganised methods of art perspicacity (Elkisch, 1948 Shaw, 1934) and the various nuzzlees to translation these productions (Machover, 1949/1980).The daze of depth psychology on the un seasonly development of art therapy was pro-found. Hammers (1958/1980) virtuous book on drawing as a projective device illustrates the kind within this stadium and the inclusion of 2 chapters on art therapy by pioneering art healer Margarg ont Naumburg demonstrates the carrefour of influences. M each of the more common stereotypes about art therapy (specific, delegate drawings finger mental picture and the role of the therapist in divining the straight meaning of the drawings) can, in fact, be traced flat to this era.Nearly all the study art therapy writers from this judgment of conviction genuine their own methods of discernment consisting of batteries of art tasks with alter levels of structure (Kramer & Schehr, 1983 Kwiatkowska, 1978 Rubin, 1978/1984 Ulman & Dachinger, 1975/1996). Even today, the notion that art whole shebang in some way shine the psychic experience of the artist is a native concept in art therapy. in spite of this common history, in that respect are differentions between the preliminary to assessment used in psychology and that found in art therapy.The key inequality is the art therapy perspective that the making and display of the art have in herent therapeutical capableness f or the knob, a government agency not necessarily held by psychometricians. In addition, art therapists tend to use more alter and expressive materials and to de show formalized verbal contributeives and form the role of clients as interpreters of their own work. Finally, art therapists are too quite plausibly to improvise on the pro-tocol of standardized assessments to uit a particular clinical purpose (Mills & Goodwin, 1991). An appear theme in the literature is the uncommon role the creative arts therapies can play in the assessment and evaluation of clients (Bruscia, 1988 Feder & Feder, 1998). Contemporary developers of art therapy assessments have fling ortho-dox psychoanalytic go on shotes in favor of methods that emphasize the expressive potential 4 of the tasks and materials (Cohen, Hammer, & Singer, 1988 follow Frame, 1993 Gantt & Tabone, 1997 Landgarten, 1993 Silver, 1978/1989).Early art therapy exploreers too looked to psychology and embraced its empiri-ca l barbel for their enquiry (Kwiatkowska, 1978). More recently, models from the behavioural sciences and other palm have been used as resources in conducting art therapy research (Kaplan, 2000 McNiff, 1998 Wadeson, 1992). THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE cunning THERAPY LITERATURE The development of each discipline is best traced by means of the evolution of that fields literature. The historians design of artificially dividing time into segments is employed here to illustrate terce phases of growth in the profession of art therapy.Classical end (1940s to 1970s) In the set of the 20th century a largely independent mix of individuals began to use the term art therapy in their writings to describe their work with clients. In doing so, these pioneering individuals began to define a discipline that was distinct from other, older professions. Because on that point was no formal art therapy cookery to be had, these early writers were trained in other fields and mentored by psychiatrist s, analysts, and other mental health professionals.The four leaders writers universally accepted for their contributions to the development of the field during this period are Margaret Naumburg, Edith Kramer, Hanna Kwiatkowska, and Elinor Ulman. The lasting impact of their original works on the field is demonstrated by the fact that their writings continue to be used as original sources in contemporary art therapy literature. More than any other author, Naumburg is seen as the primary give out of American art therapy and is frequently referred to as the Mother of artistic creation Therapy (see Junge & Asawa, 1994, p. 22).Through her early work in the innovative Walden School, which she founded (along with her sis Florence Cane), and later in psychi-atric settings she developed her ideas and, in the 1940s, began to write about what was to become cognize as art therapy (Detre et al. , 1983). Familiar with the ideas of both Freud and Jung, Naumburg (1966/1987) conceived her dynam ically point art therapy to be largely similar to the psychoanalytic practices of the day. The clients art productions were viewed as symbolical communication of unconscious mind material in a direct, uncensored, and concrete form that Naumburg (1950/1973) argued would aid in the gag rule of the transference. While Naumburg borrowed firmly from the techniques of psychoanalytic practice, Kramer took a different approach by adapting concepts from Freuds character theory to exempt the art therapy process. Her art as therapy approach emphasizes the intrinsic therapeutic potential in the art-making process and the cardinal role the exculpation force mechanism of sublimation plays in this experience (Kramer, 1971/1993).Kramers (1958, 1971/1993) work in therapeutic schools (as opposed to Naumburgs psychiatric strain) allows for more direct application of her ideas to educational settings. Ulmans most swell contributions to the field have been as an editor in chief and writer. S he founded The Bulletin of guile Therapy in 1961 (The American diary of dodge Therapy subsequently 1970) when no other takings of its kind existed (Junge &c Asawa, 1994). In addition, Ulman (along with her coeditor Dachinger) (1975/1996) make the scratch book of collected essays on art therapy that served as one of the fewer texts in the field for many years.Her give way as a writer was to on the button synthesize and phonate complex ideas. In her essay imposture Therapy Problems of Definition, Ulman (1975/1996) compares and contrasts Naumburgs art psychotherapy and Kramers art as therapy models so all the way that it continues to be the unambiguous presentation of this impression speculative continuum. The last of these four unprecedented women, Kwiatkowska, made her major contributions in the areas of research and family art therapy. She brought unneurotic her experiences in various psychiatric settings in a book that became the foundation for functional with fa milies by dint of art (Kwiatkowska, 1978).Like Kramer, she had fled Europe at the time of World struggle II adding to the controversy of emigre thinkers who influenced the development of mental health disciplines in the United States. She to a fault coauthored a short book that helped introduce the field of art therapy to the oecumenic public (Ulman, Kramer, & Kwiatkowska, 1978). for each one of these pioneers lectured widely on the outcome of art therapy and served as some of the fields setoff educators. It was to a fault during this period that the setoff formal programs with degrees in art therapy were offered (Junge Asawa, 1994 Levick, Goldman, & Fink, 1967).Finally, it is important not to result the other early pioneers operative in other separate of the country, such as Mary Huntoon at the Menninger Clinic (Wix, 2000), who made contributions to the maturation profession as well. 6 middle Years some other Pioneering Writers (1970s to Mid-1980s) The 1970s through t he mid-1980s saw the issuance of an increasing publication of publications that presented a broader effigy of applications and conceptual perspectives (Betensky, 1973 Landgarten, 1981 Levick, 1983 McNiff, 1981 Rhyne, 1973/ 1995 Robbins & Sibley, 1976 Rubin, 1978/1984 Wadeson, 1980), although depth psychology remained a governing influence.The development of the literature was also enriched during this period with the introduction of two new journals Art Psychotherapy in 1973 (called The Arts in Psychotherapy after 1980) and Art Therapy Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, in 1983 (Rubin, 1999). The in-creasing number of publications, along with the establish of the American Art Therapy Association in 1969, evolved the professional identity element of the art therapist, credentials, and the role of art therapists vis-a-vis related professionals (Shoemaker et al. 1976). Contemporary Art Therapy Theories (Mid-1980s to Present) The art therapy literature continues to grow. In 1974, Gantt and Schmal published an annotated bibliography of sources relating to the topic of art therapy from 1940-1973 (1,175 articles, books, and papers), withal Rubin (1999) notes that in that same year on that point were only 12 books create verbally by art therapists, a number that crawled to 19 some 10 years later. By the mid-1980s this pace began to outgrowth so that in that respect are right away more than degree Celsius titles available.Rubin (1999) also speculates that art therapists may be more halcyon with an intuitive approach than other mental health practitioners because as artists they pride themselves on their innate sensitivities, and tend to be antiauthoritarian and anti- theoretical (p. 180). Recently, approximately 21% of art therapists surveyed by the American Art Therapy Association describe their primary theoretical preference as eclectic, the single largest serving report (Elkins & Stovall, 2000).This attitude is in care with one show by Wadeson (in Rubin, 1987/2001) and should not be surprise in a field that itself draws from a variety of disciplines. The next five most frequently reported models psychodynamic (10. 1%), Jungian (5. 4%), aim relations (4. 6%), art as therapy (4. 5%), and psychoanalytic (3. 0%) all place a strong violence on intrapsychic dynamics, and this additive 27. 6% suggests that much contemporary practice is still sure by largely psychodynamic concepts (Elkins & Stovall, 7 2000).In a landmark book, Approaches to Art Therapy first published in 1987, Rubin (1987/2001) brought together essays by authors representing the diversity of theoretical positions within the field. Perspectives from these and other relevant sources are briefly summarized here. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES The ideas of Freud and his following (see Chapter 2, this volume) have been part of art therapy since the earliest days, although contemporary writers are more credibly to apply wrong such as transference and the defense mechanisms to articulate a position rather than employ classic psychoanalytic techniques ith any degree of orthodoxy. Kramer, Rubin, Ulman, and Wilson (all cited in Rubin, 1987/2001) and Levick (1983) all use psychoanalytic speech and concepts. Interpretations of the newer developments in analysis such as the theories of Klein (Weir, 1990), self psychology (Lachman-Chapin) and object relations theory (Robbins) can also be found in the art therapy literature (both cited in Rubin, 1987/2001).With his emphasis on images from the unconscious, it was subjective for Jungs concepts of analytical and prototypic psychology to cross over into art therapy (see Chapter 2, this volume). Work by Edwards and Wallace (both cited in Rubin, 1987/ 2001), McConeghey (1986), and Schaverian (1992) all reflect this emphasis. humanistic APPROACHES Elkins and Stovall (2000) suggest that only a fiddling number of art therapists operate from a humanistic position (among humanistic, Gestalt, ex istential, and client center the highest response was to the first category with 2. 9). notwithstanding if these approaches can be defined as sharing an approving view of human nature and of the human condition, seeing people in a process of growth and development, with the potential to take responsibility for their destine (Rubin, 1987/2001, p. 119), these figures belie a sentiment held by many art therapists (see Chapter 3, this volume). Garai (cited in Rubin, 1987/2001) has scripted from a normal humanistic position, Rogers (1993) and Silverstone (1997) use a person-centered model, and Dreikurs (1986) and Garlock (cited in Rubin, 1987) have capable ideas first furnish by Alfred Adier.Other models that fall under the humanistic question include existential (B. 8 Moon, 1990/1995), phenomenological (Betensky, 1995), and gestalt (Rhyne, 1973/1995) approaches. larn AND DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHES perhaps because they are perceive to be mechanistic, those psychological theories that emphasize knowledge tend to be less ordinary with art therapists. In the Elkins and Stovall (2000) survey, cognitive- behavioral (see Chapter 6, this volume), cognitive, developmental (Chapter 8, this volume), and behavioral received an ndorsement of over 2%. and there are art therapy authors whose work has been informed by these theories. Silver (2000) has written extensively on assessment using a cognitive approach, and the work of Lusebrink (1990) and Nucho (1987) is ground in common systems theory. Art therapists working with children with emotional and developmental disabilities have also adapted concepts from developmental (Aach-Feldman & Kunkle-Miller, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001 Williams & Wood, 1975) and behavioral psychology (Roth, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001).FAMILY THERAPY AND OTHER APPROACHES A number of writers (Landgarten, 1987 Linesch, 1993 Riley & Malchiodi, 1994 Sobol, 1982) have built on Kwiatkowskas early family work, peculiarly in calcium where art ther apists become licensed as marriage and family therapists. Riley (1999) also incorporates concepts from narrative therapy into her work (Chapter 5, this volume). Relational (Dalley, Rifkind, & Terry, 1993) and libber (Hogan, 1997) approaches question the hierarchy in the client/therapist human relationship and empower-ing the client and have also regulate contemporary art therapy practice.Publications by Horovitz-Darby (1994), Farrelly-Hansen (2001), and McNiff (1992) reflect an emphasis on spiritual and philosophic concepts over psychological theory. Frank-lin, Farrelly-Hansen, Marek, Swan-Foster, and Wallingford (2000) describe a transpersonal approach to art therapy. Alien (1992) called for a reversal of the perceive trend in overemphasizing the clinical orientation and encouraged art therapists to refocus on their artist identity. publications by Lachman-Chapin (1983) Knill (1995), who espouses an expressive arts therapies approach (Chapter 8, this volume) and C.Moon (2002 ) reflect this studio approach to theory and practice. 9 CONCLUSION any art therapist knows there is much to be in condition(p) from the process of making an artwork as well as from standing back and viewing the un through with(p) product. The tapes-try that is art therapy is not a dusty relic hung in a museum but a invigoration work in progress. There is amusement in admiring the work that has already been done and excitement in the weaving. It is my hope that readers can appreciate the processes and the products that have shaped this profession. 10